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Pembuat	Pablo Carlos Budassi
Pemilik hak cipta	1080px x 1080px version lisenced under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International. Background image by ESO/S. Brunier - Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
Tajuk	Artist's impression of a super-Earth
Kredit/Penyedia	Created by artist Pablo Carlos Budassi in 2023 (@pablocarlosbudassi)
Sumber	https://pablocarlosbudassi.com
Judul gambar	A Super-Earth is a type of exoplanet with a mass higher than Earth's, but substantially below those of the Solar System's ice giants, Uranus and Neptune, which are 14.5 and 17 times Earth's, respectively. The term "super-Earth" refers only to the mass of the planet, and so does not imply anything about the surface conditions or habitability. The alternative term "gas dwarfs" may be more accurate for those at the higher end of the mass scale, although "mini-Neptunes" is a more common term.In general, super-Earths are defined by their masses, and the term does not imply temperatures, compositions, orbital properties, habitability, or environments. While sources generally agree on an upper bound of 10 Earth masses (~69% of the mass of Uranus, which is the Solar System's giant planet with the least mass), the lower bound varies from 1 or 1.9 to 5, with various other definitions appearing in the popular media. The term "super-Earth" is also used by astronomers to refer to planets bigger than Earth-like planets (from 0.8 to 1.2 Earth-radius), but smaller than mini-Neptunes (from 2 to 4 Earth-radii). This definition was made by the Kepler space telescope personnel. Some authors further suggest that the term Super-Earth might be limited to rocky planets without a significant atmosphere, or planets that have not just atmospheres but also solid surfaces or oceans with a sharp boundary between liquid and atmosphere, which the four giant planets in the Solar System do not have. Planets above 10 Earth masses are termed massive solid planets, mega-Earths, or gas giant planets, depending on whether they are mostly rock and ice or mostly gas.Due to the larger mass of super-Earths, their physical characteristics may differ from Earth's; theoretical models for super-Earths provide four possible main compositions according to their density: low-density super-Earths are inferred to be composed mainly of hydrogen and helium (mini-Neptunes); super-Earths of intermediate density are inferred to either have water as a major constituent (ocean planets), or have a denser core enshrouded with an extended gaseous envelope (gas dwarf or sub-Neptune). A super-Earth of high density is believed to be rocky and/or metallic, like Earth and the other terrestrial planets of the Solar System. A super-Earth's interior could be undifferentiated, partially differentiated, or completely differentiated into layers of different composition. A study on Gliese 876 d by a team around Diana Valencia revealed that it would be possible to infer from a radius measured by the transit method of detecting planets and the mass of the relevant planet what the structural composition is. For Gliese 876 d, calculations range from 9,200 km (1.4 Earth radii) for a rocky planet and very large iron core to 12,500 km (2.0 Earth radii) for a watery and icy planet.The limit between rocky planets and planets with a thick gaseous envelope is calculated with theoretical models. Calculating the effect of the active XUV saturation phase of G-type stars over the loss of the primitive nebula-captured hydrogen envelopes in extrasolar planets, it's obtained that planets with a core mass of more than 1.5 Earth-mass (1.15 Earth-radius max.), most likely cannot get rid of their nebula captured hydrogen envelopes during their whole lifetime. Other calculations point out that the limit between envelope-free rocky super-Earths and sub-Neptunes is around 1.75 Earth-radii, as 2 Earth-radii would be the upper limit to be rocky (a planet with 2 Earth-radii and 5 Earth-masses with a mean Earth-like core composition would imply that 1/200 of its mass would be in a H/He envelope, with an atmospheric pressure near to 2.0 GPa or 20,000 bar). Whether or not the primitive nebula-captured H/He envelope of a super-Earth is entirely lost after formation also depends on the orbital distance. For example, formation and evolution calculations of the Kepler-11 planetary system show that the two innermost planets Kepler-11b and c, whose calculated mass is≈2 M🜨 and between ≈5 and 6 M🜨 respectively (which are within measurement errors), are extremely vulnerable to envelope loss. In particular, the complete removal of the primordial H/He envelope by energetic stellar photons appears almost inevitable in the case of Kepler-11b, regardless of its formation hypothesis.If a super-Earth is detectable by both the radial-velocity and the transit methods, then both its mass and its radius can be determined; thus its average bulk density can be calculated. The actual empirical observations are giving similar results as theoretical models, as it's found that planets larger than approximately 1.6 Earth-radius (more massive than approximately 6 Earth-masses) contain significant fractions of volatiles or H/He gas (such planets appear to have a diversity of compositions that is not well-explained by a single mass-radius relation as that found in rocky planets). After measuring 65 super-Earths smaller than 4 Earth-radii, the empirical data points out that Gas Dwarves would be the most usual composition: there is a trend where planets with radii up to 1.5 Earth-radii increase in density with increasing radius, but above 1.5 radii the average planet density rapidly decreases with increasing radius, indicating that these planets have a large fraction of volatiles by volume overlying a rocky core. Another discovery about exoplanets' composition is that about the gap or rarity observed for planets between 1.5 and 2.0 Earth-radii, which is explained by a bimodal formation of planets (rocky Super-Earths below 1.75 and sub-Neptunes with thick gas envelopes being above such radii).Additional studies, conducted with lasers at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and at the OMEGA laboratory at the University of Rochester show that the magnesium-silicate internal regions of the planet would undergo phase changes under the immense pressures and temperatures of a super-Earth planet, and that the different phases of this liquid magnesium silicate would separate into layers.Image created by Pablo Carlos Budassi in 2023 (pablocarlosbudassi.com)
Ketentuan penggunaan	Please attribute the author when reusing this image. If possible, please link to: https://pablocarlosbudassi.com
Tanggal dan waktu pembuatan data	26 Maret 2021
Lebar	1.080 px
Tinggi	1.080 px
Bit per komponen	8 8 8
Komposisi piksel	RGB
Orientasi	Normal
Jumlah komponen	3
Resolusi horizontal	72 dpi
Resolusi vertikal	72 dpi
Perangkat lunak	Adobe Photoshop CS6 (Macintosh)
Tanggal dan waktu perubahan berkas	12 Agustus 2023 23.25
Versi Exif	2.21
Ruang warna	sRGB
Tanggal terakhir perubahan metadata	12 Agustus 2023 20.25
Tanggal dan waktu digitalisasi	30 Mai 2008 09.09
ID unik dokumen asli	xmp.did:0080117407206811B65FEE6CD4839DCA
Jenis objek	13000000 science and technology
Kata kunci	super-Earth super Earth planet world terrestrial mass Uranus Neptune exoplanet atmosphere rocky ocean world mini-Neptune gas dwarf planetary science space astronomy astrobiology astrochemistry cosmology celestial body astronomical object class type sphere LHS 1140b Gliese 876 Kepler-11
Informasi kontak	pablocarlosbudassi@gmail.com www.pablocarlosbudassi.com https://www.pablocarlosbudassi.com/2021/02/planet-types.html Provincia del Chaco 2925 P.A. Mendoza, Mendoza - M5502, Argentina +54(261)5320315